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The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation (Springer Praxis Books), by Frank O'Brien
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Designing a mission for a flight to the Moon requires balancing the demands of a wide array of spacecraft systems, with the details of tending each component generating complex and often contradictory requirements. More than any other system in the Apollo spacecraft, the Apollo Guidance Computer drove the capabilities of the lunar missions. In the 1960's, most computers filled an entire room yet the spacecraft's computer was required to be compact and require little power.� When compared to modern systems, the AGC's design limitations and lack of speed presented formidable challenges. Yet, hardware and software engineers overcame these difficulties, and their creation was able to guide a new and complex spacecraft and its precious human cargo away from the safety of Earth and towards a new world. Although people today find it difficult to accept that it was possible to control a spacecraft using such a 'primitive' computer, it nevertheless had capabilities that are advanced even by today's standards.
The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation is the first comprehensive description of the Apollo computer, beginning with its internal organization to its user interface and flight software. Particular emphasis is placed on the instruction set, Executive capabilities, the Interpreter and the detailed procedures for mission application software. Launch, landing on the Moon and entry back on Earth are explained in rich detail and show how the computer was an integral part of the spacecraft operation. As a comprehensive account, it spans the disciplines of computer science, aerospace engineering and spacecraft operations. The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation is an essential reference for space historians and engineers, and serves well as a complementary text for computer science courses.
- Sales Rank: #92118 in Books
- Brand: Brand: Praxis
- Published on: 2010-07-12
- Released on: 2010-07-12
- Original language: English
- Number of items: 1
- Dimensions: 9.45" h x 1.04" w x 6.61" l, 1.71 pounds
- Binding: Paperback
- 430 pages
- Used Book in Good Condition
Review
From the reviews:
“This exceedingly valuable work will give present day Computer Science students the background to understand how the dramatic breakthroughs in Logical Design, Computer Architecture, Computer Language Interpreters and Real-Time Executive Software was invented, and how it worked in practice. … This excellent reference will form a model for teaching and learning historical Computer Architectures and Software so that future Computer Scientists can understand and learn the original ideas that today guide their field.” (Ira Laefsky, Amazon, September, 2010) From the Back Cover
By today's standards, the on-board computer used by the Apollo astronaut's was a primitive affair, but in an age when most computers filled an entire room, this was small, required little power, and incorporated several technologies that were revolutionary for its time. This is the first book to fully describe the Apollo guidance computer's architecture, Executive software, and the programs used by astronauts. It describes the full range of technologies required in order to fly the Apollo lunar missions, and whicn enabled the astronauts to fly to the Moon - and back!
About the Author
Frank O'Brien's interest in the Apollo program began as a serious amateur historian. By the early 1990's, he began performing research and writing essays for the Apollo Lunar Surface Journal, and the Apollo Flight Journal, which are considered the canonical online reference on the flights to the Moon. Much of this work centered on his primary interests, the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) and the Lunar Module. He was then asked to assist the curatorial staff in the creation of the Cradle of Aviation Museum, on Long Island, New York, where he helped prepare the Lunar Module simulator, a LM procedure trainer and an Apollo space suit for display. He regularly lectures on the Apollo computer and related topics to diverse groups, from NASA's computer engineering conferences, the IEEE/ACM, computer festivals and university student groups.
Most helpful customer reviews
49 of 49 people found the following review helpful.
A Stunning Achievement In The Literature Of Apollo
By Robert I. Hedges
"The Apollo Guidance Computer: Architecture and Operation" by Frank O'Brien is an extremely rare book: it actually says something new about Apollo while clarifying myriads of technical points that engineers, programmers, and pilots have been wondering about for decades. The book puts the history and development of the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) in historical perspective, and discusses the primary hardware, software, and programming features that made the system operate. From a modern perspective the AGC seems cumbersome and archaic, yet in the 1960's it was truly state of the art, featuring huge developments in integrated circuits, and amazing flexibility in a compact package that could fit in the Command Module (CM) and Lunar Module (LM.)
The book really does start from the beginning, discussing everything from floating point numbers, binary and octal notation, instruction formats and the like. Not being a programmer, this was the most difficult part of the book for me, and I read it quite slowly to make sure I grasped the salient points before proceeding. The book then delves into the unique core memory architecture of the AGC and the structure of the various registers, timers, and basic logic. Following that O'Brien gets into concepts more familiar to me such as the Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and the various I/O devices involved with spacecraft navigation. He covers the basics of cislunar navigation, and discusses how the inputs were made (generally on the DSKY,) and explains the significance of all the annunciations on the DSKY and related areas. He has a particularly strong grasp of the perils of gimbal lock, and gives excellent explanations of the phenomena and the resulting problems (i.e. the progression from the "Gimbal Lock" light which is actually cautionary, to "No Att" which signifies the actually loss of orientation, p. 129.) Entwined in these discussions are explanations of higher level functionality of the AGC (e.g. the Executive and Interpreter,) DSKY entries, and limitations of the system.
Chapter three, "The basics of guidance and navigation," was my favorite in the book because it elegantly took the theory of the AGC design and explained its practical use along with the use of the hardware in the CM and LM associated with navigating to the moon and back. O'Brien is very strong in his explanation of the IMU gimbals and the principles of the stable platform, and discusses the frequently-confusing axis-naming conventions used on Apollo (p. 201,) and the mechanics of gimbal operation and gimbal lock. He also gives a good explanation of the optics and sextant-based stellar navigation system (CM) and the Alignment Optical Telescope (AOT) in the LM. The discussion concludes with a great overview of coordinate systems ("Which way is up?") and introduces the crucial concept of the Reference to Stable Member Matrix (REFSMMAT,) which specifies the orientation of the platform.
Chapter four, "Mission programs and operations," is the most fast-paced in the book. O'Brien rapidly progresses through the programs required for a typical mission, and explains them with reference to Apollo flightplans and excellent photographs of the actual hardware involved to make it easier to follow. DSKY entries are emphasized and the critical nature of the mission timeline is constantly reinforced. Rendezvous is extensively discussed, and the methods used throughout Apollo are discussed, and explanations of different methods, techniques, and requirements are well covered (e.g. Coelliptic Sequence Initiation, plane changes, etc.) I especially commend Mr. O'Brien's explanation of the Constant Delta Height (CDH) maneuver on p. 302. I had harbored some misunderstandings about this (specifically how the CDH burn could adjust the phasing between the CM and LM,) but O'Brien addressed the issue and made it easily grasped.
The book winds down with an excellent discussion of the Digital Autopilot (DAP,) which was truly revolutionary. The DAP was enormously flexible, and allowed Apollo to pioneer "fly-by-wire" technologies and made the mission much more manageable for the astronauts. O'Brien then segues into the related discussion of RCS thrusters and coupling phenomena, followed by an explanation of earth atmosphere entry and the various entry profiles that might be selected and why (i.e. whether or not to use a "double dip" entry.) Finally (and of most interest to many readers,) the Apollo 11 executive overflow alarms (1202 and 1201) and the Apollo 14 abort discrete bit issue (likely caused by a loose floating ball of solder) are examined and explained in detail.
The book also contains numerous appendices listing everything from AGC Interrupt Vectors to the CM and LM Programs (Major Modes) as well as complete Noun and Verb lists for both the CM and LM. The scope of this work is genuinely amazing.
This book is not for the casual reader with a passing interest in the lunar landings, but for engineers, computer programmers, pilots, astronauts, and historians of technology this is a genre-defining work. I took a long time to read this book as there is much here to be learned, but don't regret a second of it: this is an amazing book and I recommend it highly.
28 of 28 people found the following review helpful.
A Vital Historical Computer Architecture Study--"Wow"
By Ira Laefsky
The embedded computer that traveled with the Apollo astronauts was not only an important component of the navigation and control system for the historic lunar landings; it was an infinitely important landmark in the development of the microcomputer and embedded real-time systems which today inhabit our cars, homes and entertainment equipment. It was also the first important step in developing inexpensive real-time systems for control and ubiquitous computing. While other works such as Mindel's "Digital Apollo" and Eldon C. Hall's "Journey To The Moon" have described this system as a component of the overall Apollo system and in a first-person account of the development process, only this important textbook gives the modern student of computer architecture and embedded real-time systems the technical detail to understand how this first microcomputer system worked in practice. Exquisite detail and explanation is given of the Hardware and Logical Design Architecture of this systems, as well as the principles and practice of the historic Forth-like language interpreter and Real-Time Executive Software.
This exceedingly valuable work will give present day Computer Science students the background to understand how the dramatic breakthroughs in Logical Design, Computer Architecture, Computer Language Interpreters and Real-Time Executive Software was invented, and how it worked in practice. Detailed Scenarios are also given of how this software and hardware architecture functioned in the astronauts computation of Navigation and Guidance. Enough detail and careful instruction is given in the functioning of this computer for classroom instruction in computer science or for the advanced hobbyist to use the software simulators of the Apollo Guidance Computer in duplicating the steps the Lunar Astronauts performed in guiding the Command Module and Lunar Lander. This excellent reference will form a model for teaching and learning historical Computer Architectures and Software so that future Computer Scientists can understand and learn the original ideas that today guide their field.
--Ira Laefsky
MSE/MBA Computer Human Interaction Researcher and Consultant formerly Senior Consultant on the Staff of Arthur D. Little, Inc. and Digital Equipment Corporation
26 of 26 people found the following review helpful.
Well written book on an interesting subject!
By Stephen Hermer
I purchased the Kindle edition, and found it to be well formatted with clear images and text. I was surprised by how much I really liked this book -- Frank O'Brien knows his stuff, and this book is a real pleasure to read.
This book is divided into five main chapters, plus a set of appendixes:
Chapter 0 - The state of the art
This chapter lays the groundwork, briefly covering the early history of computing and manned flight. This chapter also covers the concept of computer "power", and how well a computer with very limited hardware can really perform.
Chapter 1 - The AGC hardware
This chapter describes the physical computer, how it evolved from the requirements of a manned mission to the moon, and how every bit of functionality was squeezed out of it. Before reading this book, I envisioned the Apollo Guidance Computer as a glorified calculator, but it was actually a complex and advanced computer in many ways.
Chapter 2 - The Executive and Interpreter
This chapter describes the instruction set and programming language of the Apollo Guidance Computer. It also goes into some detail regarding the various interfaces inside the spacecraft as well as telemetry back to Earth. As a computer programmner, this section was especially interesting for me.
Chapter 3 - The basics of guidance and navigation
This chapter covers the spacecraft sensors and the problems of navigating the spacecraft. This might sound like a very dry subject, but the author is able to make it interesting and understandable.
Chapter 4 - Mission programs and operations
This chapter covers the entire Apollo mission (launch, navigating to the moon, lunar landing, lunar orbit rendevous, and return to the Earth). Before reading this chapter, I was unaware that the lunar lander had an autopilot (or that the crew refused to use it).
Appendixes
The appendixes contain an incredible amount of detail, and provide a great deal of "value added" information.
The subject matter of this work may not be for everyone, but those who have some interest will not be disappointed if they pick this gem up!
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